Notes from Frans Bosch - Transfer of Strength Training: Implications from the CNS - Underground Athletics

It all comes down to the basic question, "Is what you are doing in the gym relevant to what you do on the field?" Whether the term used is dynamic correspondence or simply transfer of training, don't get caught up in the "Battle of of the buzz-words". If it works, you keep it in your program, if it doesn't you're just wasting your time. 

This article from Simon Nainby does a great job of highlighting what it is you are looking for to determine whether your stuff works for your athletes or if you are just fooling yourself and others.  

from undergroundathletics.co.uk

http://undergroundathletics.co.uk/notes-from-frans-bosch-transfer-of-strength-training-implications-from-the-cns/

Notes from Frans Bosch – Transfer of Strength Training: Implications from the CNS

Posted on March 21, 2013 by Simon Nainby

This was an important lecture for me as it introduced several concepts that prompted me to study many important aspects of skill acquisition as I mentioned in my introduction to What is good coaching?

Frans Bosch is professor of biomechanics and motor learning at Fontys University for Applied Science in the Netherlands and sprint consultant to the Welsh Rugby Union – you can read more about him here. My notes, in bullet point format, from the lecture are below:

• The laws of motor learning should be central in designing a strength program rather than Newtonian laws
• In order to maximise the learning result Strength exercises need:
  • Precise intention
  • Variable execution
• Basic motor properties such as strength, endurance, flexibility, co-ordination etc don't exist
• This is because there is no clear dividing line between properties – there should be a guaranteed transfer of that property between movement patterns but this is not the case
• A well trained high jumper can get Maximum Voluntary Contraction to 95% executing a high jump (compared to an untrained person's level of 75%) but they couldn't do the same in a Javelin throw as it is a different movement pattern
• If muscle is not pre-tensed in an isometric contraction prior to movement then it has slack
• Up to 50% of a countermovement jump, for example, can be taken up with the muscle going from slack to taut
• Resistance exercises like a barbell hang clean provide pre-tension for the muscles through the weight of the barbell providing a counterbalance
• This results in the body becoming lazy as regards pre-tension – Frans has eliminated countermovements from lifts for his athletes for this reason
• As a result strength cannot be considered a stand-alone bio-motor property and classic mechanics do not address motor control and is too reductionist an approach

A more in depth explanation of the concept of muscle slack is provided in this article

Frans' Rules of Specificity as the main requirement for transfer

1. Types of muscle action must be similar to those used in competition (Inter/Intra muscular)
2. Structure of the movement must resemble that used in competition (motion of limbs)
3. Sensory information must resemble that present in competition
4. Dominant energy systems used in competition must be called on
5. Result of the movement must be the same as competition

• 1& 2 are the usual suspects – 3 is a key factor often overlooked. Frans did not mention in his lecture but this is due to perception-action coupling which I mentioned in my blog What is good coaching? Two papers of interest on this are hereand here.
• Focussing on a movement outcome produces a better learning effect than focussing on performance of a skill
• Frans detailed a study that split discus throwers in to 2 groups that received feedback from:
  • An elite coach – giving them Knowledge of Performance (KP – how well or poorly they executed the throw)
  • A measuring tape i.e. they were only told how far each throw went – giving Knowledge of Results (KR)
• Those in the Knowledge of Results group attained results as good as those receiving feedback from a coach in the short term and performed better in the long term
• KP results in an internal focus for athletes where they are thinking about where to position their limbs, sequence of movement which can result in overload (otherwise called reinvestment) and poor performance
• KR leads to an external focus whereby the athlete is only thinking of achieving the goal
• Therefore a Clean type movement is better than a High Pull as it has a clear outcome goal where the bar is racked on the shoulders

I emailed Frans to ask about the study he mentioned and it was by Ballreich but pre-digital era and he only had a hard copy. The Wulf and Prinz Review mentioned on the slide is here.

Dynamic Systems Theory

• There are many differences in running between an elite track sprinter and an elite rugby player such as more trunk lean and lower heel recovery height for the rugby player but how relevant are they?
• Degrees of freedom – the number of parameters that may independently vary – click here for more info on this and here for a study on free(z)ing DoF
• In the arm there are 1,000's of degrees of freedom through the various joints & muscles
• Too many degrees of freedom can make control impossible therefore the body seeks to stabilise certain elements that then serve as attractor wells for the unstable elements (see pic on right)
• We start with relatively unstable technique but as certain key elements stabilise they increase the depth of the well they sit in which attracts the unstable elements more easily
• Skilled practitioners show a high variance in movement patterns that are repetitive
• E.g a Blacksmith hitting an iron will have a different start position each time but hit the same end position each time – based on work of Bernstein (who interestingly coined the term "Biomechanics")
• Therefore we should look to address 2 or 3 key attractors for a skill that are always the same rather than try to address every facet
• E.g a Clean that finishes with a single leg up on to a step has the same attractors as running and the fluctuations (differences such as knee lift heights) are irrelevant

Decentralised Self Organisation

• The body tends to be variable but the implement it is using or outcome it achieves is very precise
• There is no hierachy of top down, brain to muscle signalling
• The whole system is involved throughout a movement correcting errors as it develops (decentralised self organisation)
• As the signal is filtered down through the system noise is fine tuned to remove errors
• A squat in the gym has no pertubations whereas sport has many due to the chaotic nature
• As a result instability in training (weights and surfaces) is very important due to the theory of differential learning
• Aiming for perfect technique in a stable environment (e.g. back squat in a gym for a rugby player) does not improve competition performance whereas strength training that has variable performance in an unstable environment does
• Learning a skill is not learning a perfect technique but learning how to correct errors
• Therefore instability and variation in strength exercises are crucial for the learning effect

This lecture rattled a few cages from what I heard other delegates saying afterwards. As Ian King often says, there was an immediate over-reaction followed by a long term under-reaction on this as many came away thinking Frans was saying all strength training must be done on one leg on a upturned BOSU and therefore they would ignore what he presented.

I had my own opinion on the main point of the lecture and fortunately managed to corner Frans afterwards to clarify this. It is important to note the difference between General Preparation Means and Specific Preparation Means. This article does a good job of explaining these classifications. Once this is understood you can see that transfer is only really a consideration for Specific Preparation exercises.

Frans was not saying that all strength training must be done on unstable surfaces and every exercise must be on one leg etc. He was saying that within a program you must take in to account the fact that sport is chaotic and in order to properly prepare for this these are important considerations. He is a consultant to the Welsh Rugby Union and it is clear that their players are not waving 2.5kg dumbbells around sitting on Swiss balls all the time. They do traditional strength training as part of their General Preparation but also incorporate these methods around Specific Preparation such as speed and sport training with great success.

I think certain delegates (not all I hasten to add) missed the key messages surrounding motor learning and skill acquisition. As with most things in life, there is a blend of many factors necessary for success yet people are keen to polarise debate where this does not in fact reflect reality.

I personally found this lecture fascinating and it directed me to many interesting topics within skill acquisition which I feel are now benefitting me greatly.

Sent from my iPhone

Coaching tips to accelerate sport skill learning - Knoxville Sports Performance Examiner

Coaching tips to accelerate sport skill learning

·         August 16th, 2009 12:15 am ET

·         By Denise Wood, Knoxville Sports Performance Examiner

Athletes can learn and retain sport skills more quickly when coaches use effective instructional techniques.  These psychologically-based coaching tips can help athletes accelerate sport skill learning and performance:

1.  Help athletes learn skills correctly the first time. Initial learning is most impressionable. Coaches should monitor and guide athletes to learn proper technique when they are in the early stages of learning.

2.  Teach skill rhythms first, then refine the movements.  Athletes can learn and recall rhythmic movements more quickly than isolated movements, just as rhymes are more readily remembered than disconnected words in verbal learning.

3.  Chunk movements.  Movements can be learned more quickly if they are "chunked", or grouped, into larger movements.  Break skills down only as much as necessary.  Overanalysis causes paralysis.

 4.  Make new skills meaningful.  Explain and demonstrate a new skill so that the athlete understands what is required and why it is executed that way.  Clarify how a skill, movement, or strategy will help the athlete improve sport performance.

5.  Associate new skills and concepts with well learned skills.  Capitalize on an athlete's previous experience and maturity level by suggesting mental images that associate new skill concepts and features with familiar ones.

6.  Point out specific cues that require the athlete's attention.  Intention to remember alerts an athlete to important aspects of a skill or game situation.  The ability to focus and remember key cues distinguishes beginners from skilled performers.

7.  Overlearn skills to correct errors.  Practice skills beyond what is necessary to perform them properly in order to correct technique flaws and reinforce skilled movements.

Sport skill memory techniques such as these are only a few of the many coaching tools that can streamline sports training time while boosting sport performance. 

References:

Magill, R.A. (2001). Motor learning: Concepts and applications (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schmidt, R.A. & Wrisberg, C.A. (2000). Motor learning and performance: A problem-based 
learning approach (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wrisberg, C.A. (2007). Sport skill instruction for coaches. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Coaching tips to accelerate sport skill learning - Knoxville Sports Performance | Examiner.com

http://www.dashe.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/accelerated-learning-mind-map-adam-sicinski.gif

Good stuff. Coaching good athletes to become better is hard. This will help simplify


from Knoxville Sports Performance:
Coaching tips to accelerate sport skill learning - Knoxville Sports Performance | Examiner.com:

Athletes can learn and retain sport skills more quickly when coaches use effective instructional techniques.

These psychologically-based coaching tips can help athletes accelerate sport skill learning and performance:

1.  Help athletes learn skills correctly the first time.Initial learning is most impressionable. Coaches should monitor and guide athletes to learn proper technique when they are in the early stages of learning.

2.  Teach skill rhythms first, then refine the movements.  Athletes can learn and recall rhythmic movements more quickly than isolated movements, just as rhymes are more readily remembered than disconnected words in verbal learning.

3.  Chunk movements.  Movements can be learned more quickly if they are "chunked", or grouped, into larger movements.  Break skills down only as much as necessary.  Overanalysis causes paralysis.

 4.  Make new skills meaningful.  Explain and demonstrate a new skill so that the athlete understands what is required and why it is executed that way.  Clarify how a skill, movement, or strategy will help the athlete improve sport performance.

5.  Associate new skills and concepts with well learned skills.  Capitalize on an athlete's previous experience and maturity level by suggesting mental images that associate new skill concepts and features with familiar ones.

6.  Point out specific cues that require the athlete's attention.  Intention to remember alerts an athlete to important aspects of a skill or game situation.  The ability to focus and remember key cues distinguishes beginners from skilled performers. 

7.  Overlearn skills to correct errors.  Practice skills beyond what is necessary to perform them properly in order to correct technique flaws and reinforce skilled movements.

Sport skill memory techniques such as these are only a few of the many coaching tools that can streamline sports training time while boosting sport performance. 

References:

Magill, R.A. (2001). Motor learning: Concepts and applications (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schmidt, R.A. & Wrisberg, C.A. (2000). Motor learning and performance: A problem-based
learning approach (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wrisberg, C.A. (2007). Sport skill instruction for coaches. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

'via Blog this'

Sports Are 80 Percent Mental: Coaches Should Reward The Effort More Than The Skill

This articles (below) have an awful lot of Carol Dweck and Mindset: The New Psychology for Success and Angela Duckworth's True Grit in them. Perseverance and effort as the keys to success in sports as well as many other life endeavors.

Football coaches verbalize it better with "It's not how many times you get knocked down, it's how many times you get back up". Of course, in football they spend a lot of time knocking each other down, so that makes sense from a coaching / motivational perspective. 

But think about baseball. 

Not a lot of time spent getting physically knocked down in baseball. Unless you're the high school version of Barry Bonds watching your moon shots leave the yard. Then maybe getting some extra dirt in your diet.  

But think about the mental aspect of the game or your life outside the game. How many times do we mentally or emotionally get knocked down and stay down rather than bounce right back up? Or check out and stop playing hard, so to speak, for innings or games or days or weeks on end? Oh yeah right, I'm the only one this happens to!! OK folks!!

There is so much valuable wisdom for athletes, students, teachers, parents and coaches tied up in some of the quotes below that they do bear repeating.  Definitely something to work on. 

Those life lessons from the ball field, you gotta love 'em!! Now, if we could just stop giving everyone in T-Ball a trophy, we might just have a chance to turn things around a bit.  


from 80percentmental.com:
Sports Are 80 Percent Mental: Coaches Should Reward The Effort More Than The Skill:

Our youth sports culture is similar to the classroom.  Kids who are divided into “A” or “B” teams at an early age are taught that their development path is set; the skills they have now are the same skills they will have in the future.  It becomes a self-fulfilling cycle as the “A” teams get better coaching, play in the better leagues against better competition and the talent gap widens.

 Often, parents can also, unknowingly, contribute to this cycle.  As in school, when a child is told that his or her success is due to his brain not his effort, the perception begins that when they do eventually struggle with a math test or a tougher opponent, there is little they can do to improve.

Jin Li, a psychology professor at Brown University, has also been studying cultural differences in learning and teaching.  One of her research projects recorded conversations between parents and children to hear the language used.  

 There were subtle differences between American and Asian parents when complimenting their kids.  While the Americans praised with phrases like, “you’re so smart”, Asian parents focused on the struggle, “you’ve worked so hard on learning that and now you did it.”

 “So the focus is on the process of persisting through it despite the challenges, not giving up, and that’s what leads to success,” Li said in the same NPR interview.

 Every young athlete will face challenges as they move up the ladder from youth clubs to high school to college.  Instilling them with the belief that they can improve through hard work will keep them motivated to get to the other side of the wall.  Their support team of parents and coaches can help this process by rewarding the learning process.

“Think about that [kind of behavior] spread over a lifetime,” Stigler concluded. “That’s a big difference.”

'via Blog this'

Why Boosting Perseverance Predicts Success More than a Harvard Degree

Posted: June 25th, 2010 by Michele Borba

http://www.micheleborba.com/blog/2010/06/25/why-perseverance-counts-more-than-a-harvard-degree-focus-on-what-really-matters-mom/

Did you know that more top CEOs in United States graduated from a state college than an Ivy League University such as Harvard, Yale, or Princeton?

Shocked?

Research is showing there’s a far more important predictor of a grad’s future success than the prestige of the school or faculty or even the price of tuition. What matters far more is the  graduate’s “personal drive quotient.”

Nothing beats stick-to-it-ness and hard work when it comes to boosting success-absolutely nothing. And research continues to confirm that crucial fact.

 One of the most fascinating recent studies on student achievement was conducted by Harold Stevenson, a professor of psychology at the University of Michigan. Stevenson sought to answer a question many Americans ask, “Why do Asian students do better academically than American students?”

Since 1979, Stevenson’s team of researchers conducted five intensive cross-national studies analyzing students’ achievement in the United States, China, Taiwan, and Japan. Hundreds of hours observing students and interviewing their teachers, the researchers reached a conclusion: a critical key lies in what parents emphasize about their children’s learning. Here’s the difference in parenting styles:

Asian parents strongly stress the value of effort with their children.  Over and again they tell their children, “Work as hard as you can, and you will be successful.” By expecting their children to work hard, and emphasizing the attitude: “there are no excuses for poor grades, you just didn’t work hard enough,” perseverance is nurtured in Asian children. And the parental expectations had a remarkable effect on their children. The researchers found on the whole, Asian children worker longer and harder than their American counterparts because they had recognized their success was based on how hard they worked.

Instead of prioritizing how much effort our kids put into their learning attempts, research found that most American parents emphasized: “So what grade did you get?” or “How many did you miss?” or “Did you win?”

The researchers also found that the effort a child put into their process is not nearly as important to the American parent as the end product of the grade or score.

Stevenson also found American parents place a greater emphasis on their children’s innate abilities. They tend to lower their academic expectations for their children if they perceive them to have lower academic abilities.

An Asian parents’ philosophy is different: any child can succeed regardless of an IQ score or handicap–success is all a matter of how hard you are willing to work.

Just think a minute of the long term effect of stressing effort could have on our children!

Our kids would learn from an early age that there’s nothing that can stop them from succeeding if they put their heart and soul into their endeavors. They would see mistakes or failures as just temporary setbacks, instead of as excuses to quit. If they just keep on trying, and use their mistakes as learning clues, they’ll ultimately achieve their goals!

TEACHING BACKWARDS - AN ALTERNATIVE SKILL INSTRUCTION PROGRESSION

http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/coachsci/csa/vol31/fordgolf.htm

TEACHING BACKWARDS - AN ALTERNATIVE SKILL INSTRUCTION PROGRESSION

[Modified version of Rushall, B. S., & Ford, D. (1982). Teaching backwards - An alternate skill instruction progression. CAHPER Journal, 48(5), 16-20.]

One of the major characteristics common to the majority of sport instructors, irrespective of their individual approach and style of teaching, is the sequence in which beginners are taught skills. In the traditional order of instruction a logical progression is followed from the initiation of the skill unto its completion. For example, in the sport of golf the "swing" is taught in varying degrees of minute emphases starting with the grip, then the stance, backswing, downswing, and finally, the follow-through. However, the assumption that this logical progression is the best for instruction can be debated. It is the purpose of this article to question this traditional assumption and to suggest an alternative progression that is demonstrated with the skill of swinging a golf club.

Weaknesses With the Traditional Sequencing of Instruction

Before discussing an alternative method, it is necessary to examine some of the weaknesses and problems that are inherent with the forward progression of instruction.

In most cases, the early lessons in golf instruction taken by a beginner will emphasize the grip, stance, and then probably a part swing or full swing. The grip and stance usually do not present major problems, although they will feel strange and uncomfortable, and will require many trials before they "feel right." Major problems usually occur when the beginner attempts to hit the ball, that is, any deficiencies in the segments prior to contacting the ball are manifested when contact is attempted. From there on many errors are committed and the rate of performance improvement varies greatly. The characteristic performance variation frustrates the beginner which in turn interferes with learning. Consequently, performance improvement and learning are hindered by the concomitant emotional response of the learner.

Unfortunately, the task of learning is made more difficult as the forward progression of instruction develops. The problem resides in the inability of the learner to focus all his/her attention on the new to-be-learned feature of the swing when it is introduced. The requirement of the beginner to rehearse, concentrate on, or remember previously introduced aspects of the swing before the new additional item can be attempted "interferes" with the learning of that item. As the swing development progresses more interference occurs. As a result, learning the latter features of the action becomes more difficult. This increased difficulty produces associated emotional problems as described above. This situation can account for many of the problems which are exhibited by beginning golfers, particularly those who are adults., The fact that one has to perform what has been learned before a new aspect can be attempted is the crux of the problem. It is contended that the interference that is caused by the activity prior to the attempted control of a new skill element is the weakness with forward progressions of instruction.

A further weakness with the traditional order of teaching golf is that the beginner may find it difficult to remember all the different skill aspects. Usually, a mental "check-list" is formed and followed by the student. This often leads to the golfer standing over the ball trying to think of all the things that should be emitted before the new item of instruction is attempted. This "checking" often becomes a habit. Such thought intrusions during the execution of acts like a golf swing interfere with the learning and progression of the skill development. The reasons for this interference are several, but a commonly observed one is tension which contravenes the development of a rhythmical, fluent swing.

Further, as the progression is attempted the time for attempting the new segment is delayed more and more. This leads to the possibility of forgetting what needs to be done after all the previously "learned" segments have been attended to. Also for two-phase ballistic actions such as a golf swing or a throw, there is not sufficient time to cognitively control all the segments. They are completed before that is possible. The skill of forming appropriate motor plans (Gentile, 1972) prior to the execution of each trial is not developed in a beginner. Consequently, as the instruction progresses forward, improvement is made more difficult.

The following figure illustrates difficulties with traditional forward progressions.

Forward progression diagram

It is proposed that the forward progression of teaching skills is inefficient because:

1. learning becomes more difficult as the progression advances,
2. a great deal of mental work is required of the learner,
3. interference and thinking reduces the learning rate, and
4. emotional contaminants further retard performance improvements.

Although this traditional logical progression of instruction is the most commonly observed sequence it does not necessarily mean that it is the best method of instruction.

An Alternative Method

The alternative method of instruction eliminates the problems found in the forward teaching progression. It involves the process termed "backward shaping." Backward chaining has been known as a viable instruction procedure for some time (Whaley & Malott, 1971). In that procedure elements of a behavior chain are learned by doing the last first, the next-to-last second, etc. For example, to learn a poem the line that is learned first is the last line, then the second last line is learned, and so on. This effective instructional strategy has rarely, if ever, been applied to learning a single-skill activity. This paper uses the golf swing as an example.

For teaching golf the grip is the first element that is taught irrespective of the progression used. The student should be able to form a satisfactory grip and wield the club in a variety of actions. From then on, the alternative and traditional methods differ. After the grip, the backward shaping procedure dictates that the final follow-through position is taught. The learner is made aware that this position must be attained for every swing trial. In learning terminology, the attainment of the final follow-through position should serve as a terminal reinforcer. Every subsequent trial should end at the-terminal follow-through position. The next step is to move the club out slightly and then swing it to the follow-through position. The beginner gradually progresses backward through the swing always completing each trial at the terminal reinforcer position. Each trial should be completed successfully if the progression is adhered to with each step being sufficiently easy to not cause any erroneous action. This contrasts with the forward progression which does produce errors, primarily due to the interference phenomenon.

To illustrate the concept, an example will be given of the instructional steps followed for a 35 years-old adult who had never played the game. The next figure depicts the steps with line drawings that were copied from photographs of the subject. Each step is lettered and is represented by an individual figure.

Backward shaping progression for golf

Step A. Teach the grip and place the club on the ground so that a correct grip and club length can be attained.

Step B. Place the student in the full follow-through position and repeat until the instructor is satisfied that the position can be repeated accurately.

Step C. Place the beginner in the part follow-through position as shown. From there have the student swing the club with accompanying body movements to the full follow-through position. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied that the action can be repeated. The sequence of movement is now AB.

Step D. Place the student in a position that starts the follow-through action. From there have the golfer swing the club with accompanying body movements to the initial follow-through position. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied that the action can be repeated. The sequence of movement is now D-C-B.

Step E. Have the beginner placed in a position that is halfway between follow-through initiation and ball contact. Then swing the club through the previous steps to the final terminal position. Repeat until the action flows and is done to the satisfaction of the instructor. The sequence of movement is now E-D-C-B.

Step F. Place the student in a position that would be that of just after impact with the ball. Then swing through the previous steps concentrating on flow of action. By this time, the learner should be able to indicate whether the follow-through action and final position are .satisfactory. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied. The movement sequence is now F-E-D-C-B.

Step G. Introduce the ball into the appropriate position. Place the club head about 12 inches behind the ball and instruct the student to "push" the ball off the ground and swing through to the follow-through position. This is a critical step for the push introduces linearity into the flat part of the swing. It also produces initial satisfying success in the learner as he/she is able to hit the ball straight from the very first contact. This phase should be repeated until the instructor is satisfied with the action and the learner is comfortable with contacting the ball. The sequence of movement is now G-F-E-D-C-B.

Step H. Place the beginner in a position so that the club head is off the ground and near the end of the downswing. From there, complete all the previous steps concentrating on fluent movements and attaining the follow-through position. The movement sequence is now H-G-F-E-D-C-B.

Step I. Place the beginner in the half downswing position and complete the established sequence of movements to the instructor's satisfaction. The movement sequence is now I-H-G-F-E-D-C-B.

Step J. Place the beginner in a partial backswing position introducing a small, controlled hitch as the initiation to the backswing. Swing the club through the previous steps and repeat until the instructor is satisfied. The sequence of movement is now J-I-H-G-F-E-D-C-B.

Step K. Place the student in the quarter backswing position, wind-up to the half backswing position, and swing through the movement sequence. The learner usually has a tendency to do too much backswing in this step. It may be necessary to physically restrain the amount of backswing to that practised in Step I. Repeat until the instructor is satisfied with the fluency of action and the nature of the contact with the ball. The movement sequence is now K-J-I-H-G-F-E-D-C-B.

Step L. The final step is to develop the ball address stance. Then initiate the previous movement sequence. The final sequence of the movement is L-K-J-I-H-G-F-E-D-C-B. The swing is complete once this final step has been satisfactorily executed.

There are several features of the backward shaping process which need to be followed to ensure good teaching.

1. The progression from one step to the next is only followed when the step is performed adequately. A recommended minimal criterion for adequacy is five consecutive executions of a successful enactment. It would be best for the instructor to err on the side of being too strict rather than being too lenient with regard to this feature.
2. If errors are continually demonstrated, return to the previous satisfactorily executed step for further practice and successful performance. Then proceed once again with the backward sequence.
3. If a step is too difficult for the learner, that is, mastery or understanding is not shown, break the step down into further "mini-steps" but still adhere to the backward progression procedure.
4. If several practice sessions are undertaken (which is likely to be the case), each session should begin with a quick revision and practice of all the previous steps.
5. The instructor should attempt to be very demonstrative, positive, and congratulatory for every trial that is successfully completed.

For the subject depicted in Figure 1, the teaching process was conducted indoors using plastic practice golf balls. The total indoor instruction time was 3 1/2 hours spread over 11 days. The sequence of steps described was satisfactory for this subject. it is likely that the step sequence will have to be modified according to the attributes of the individual learner. It is best to progress with too many steps rather than to attempt too few.

It should be noted that from Steps I and J that only the half backswing and half downswing positions were taught. This was done to prevent "over-swinging". It was assumed that the beginner would naturally take the club back to a fuller swing position as confidence was gained. This assumption proved correct as was evidenced in the "field test". What was interesting was that the individual concerned did not "over-swing." over-swinging is a common problem with the traditional forward progression method where a full backswing is usually taught early in the instructional sequence.

To further evaluate the backward shaping teaching method, the subject was "field-tested." He was required to hit 50 balls with a 7 iron from a particular position toward a target 140 yards away. These were the first solid balls that he had hit and were the first shots made outdoors and at a target. Of the shots, 24 traveled over 100 yards and were within 15 yards either side of the line from position to target. In essence, almost half the balls stroked were successful shots. This is a very notable level of performance and suggests that this method of instruction is very effective. However, further testing of the procedure needs to be conducted before a definitive statement can be made as to the absolute value of the backward shaping progression.

What are the Advantages of Backward Shaping?

The major benefit of the backward shaping technique is that it overcomes all the disadvantages of the forward progression method. Interference does not occur since each new element precedes all previously "learned" elements, that is, the learner thinks of the new technique item content and then does what has been done successfully before. Each progression does not increase in difficulty through interference since undivided attention can be focused on the new step element to be learned. The formation of a mental check-list is not necessary because of the naturally occurring actions and successful completions that occur. Attention is focused only on the new step content and achieving the terminal follow-through position. There is an obvious lack of tension in the learner because of the simplicity of the task and its steps. Emotional problems did not occur in this demonstration subject and are not likely to occur while step sizes are small, guarantee a high rate of success, and are clearly understood by the learner.

The following figure illustrates the structure and characteristics of backward progressions.

Backward progression diagram
A Challenge

Backward shaping is advocated as being a viable alternative to the traditional forward progression of instruction. It may not be appropriate for some activities but does have widespread potential. For example, teaching tackling would be commenced with the opponent and tackler lying on the ground in a firm hold position which would constitute the terminal tackling position. Gradually, the two individuals rise up, practice contact and holding, until the last step when the tackler runs in to make the tackle. A similar backward progression would occur for various wrestling take-downs and counter moves. Perhaps the shot putter would assume the follow-through position and work backward through the action. when teaching children to throw a similar backward progression would be advised. The sequence of steps would have to be devised and experimented with for each sporting action.

This article describes something new. Its value is best determined by those involved with teaching. Theory, laboratory investigations, and limited researches suggest great advantages for backward shaping over traditional forward teaching progressions. It is suggested that it be tried as an alternative instructional procedure. There is evidence that the experience will be rewarding for both the learner and instructor. Experimentation is in order!

References

1. Gentile, A. M. (1972), A working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching. Quest, 17, 3-23.
2. Whaley, D. L., & Malott, R. W. (1971). Elementary principles of behavior. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Return to Table of Contents for this issue.