Distinction Between Skill and Ability | Human Kinetics

from Human Kinetics:

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Distinction Between Skill and Ability

This is an excerpt from Motor Learning and Development by Pamela Haibach, Greg Reid, and Douglas Collier. Distinction Between Skill and Ability Abilities are genetically predetermined characteristics that affect movement performance such as agility, coordination, strength, and flexibility. Abilities are enduring and as such, difficult to change in adults. Abilities differ from skills in the sense that skills are learned, whereas abilities are a product of both learning and genetic factors (Fleishman, 1964). Skills are a level of proficiency on a specific motor task, while abilities are part of an individual’s traits that affect her capability to become skillful when learning a new motor task. For example, abilities that are required for a skilled race car driver include rate control, manual dexterity, stamina, control precision, and reaction time; a typist needs to have abilities in aiming and finger dexterity; a surgeon requires arm–hand steadiness and multilimb coordination; and a figure skater performing the triple axel requires abilities such as explosive strength, dynamic flexibility, gross body coordination, and multilimb coordination (refer to table 2.2 on p. 38 for the description of each motor ability).

Factors Affecting Abilities An individual’s abilities are shaped by biological and physiological factors (Fleishman, 1964). The composition of an individual’s muscular tissue is certainly going to affect his physical proficiency motor abilities such as strength, endurance, and flexibility. Physiological deficits in the development of rods and cones would also limit an individual’s perceptual–motor abilities, potentially affecting reaction time. Abilities are also affected by environmental factors. For example, children who are afforded formal education will continue to develop their verbal and reasoning abilities throughout their academic years, just as children who participate in physical fitness- or sport-related programs will develop their motor abilities. The rate at which abilities develop varies across childhood and adolescence, both within individuals and across individuals. This is largely due to growth and maturation changes. The rate of development levels out between the ages of 18 and 22 years, remaining relatively stable throughout adulthood (Fleishman, 1964). Motor Ability Hypotheses Initial researchers in the area of motor abilities hypothesized the existence of only onegeneral motor ability (Brace, 1927). This hypothesis was based on observations of accomplished athletes who were adept at many athletic events and also able to quickly learn new and unfamiliar motor skills. It is likely that you know of athletes in your age group who fit this description. Perhaps the star quarterback from your high school, who led the basketball team to state championships and held the school batting average record, comes to mind. It may appear that there are many athletes who are capable of performing very skillfully across many different motor skills. Research examining individuals’ performances across different activities supports the notion that every motor skill requires very specific abilities for skillful performance. This has been termed the specificity hypothesis (Henry, 1968). Henry proposed that each individual has a large number of separate and independent abilities. Fleishman (1962) developed a taxonomy to identify each ability and separated abilities into two main categories, perceptual–motor abilities and physical proficiency abilities (table 2.2). Although it is doubtful that Fleishman’s taxonomy is an exhaustive list of motor abilities, it does provide a framework to assess individual differences.

Mental Imaging | Human Kinetics

Mental Imaging

This is an excerpt from Tennisology by Thomas Rowland. Why waste money on Wimbledon tickets when you can imagine a perfect serve? We humans are capable of manufacturing moving pictures in our brains, so why not let motor neurons observe the mind’s own visual images to improve your service technique? Mental imaging is the technique of repeatedly projecting in one’s imagination the act of tennis play. Mental imaging has been around for a long time - not just in sport but also in such diverse realms as education, medicine, and music - and many people are convinced that it works. Hundreds of research studies have been performed in an attempt to verify this conclusion (but, unfortunately, most of these studies are considered to be of low scientific quality). There even exists an electronic journal - Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity - that is devoted to the subject. Sport psychologist Robert Weinberg at Miami University wrote an article titled "Does Imagery Work?" After reviewing all studies examining the efficacy of mental imagery, he concluded that "the weight of all this evidence most certainly would point to the fact that imagery can positively influence performance."20 In mental-imaging studies, participants are typically randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: imagery with a positive outcome (e.g., a service ace), imagery with a negative outcome (e.g., a double fault), and control (nonimaging). Most investigations of this type indicate that mental rehearsal of a positive outcome improves performance, whereas negative imaging leads to deterioration. Just how or why mental imaging works remains a mystery. It’s possibly all a matter of stimulating motivation. However, fMRI does reveal that objective changes in particular brain centers can be observed when an individual performs mental imaging. This suggests that any positive effects of mental imaging are more than psychological. Evidence also suggests that, in addition to directly improving performance, mental imaging might enhance mental skills that influence performance. For example, it might increase self-confidence, suppress competitive anxiety, and improve motivation. However, because this body of research certainly has its limitations, the final answer regarding the efficacy of mental imaging isn’t in. Some studies have assessed the effects of mental imaging when used just before an athletic competition rather than as a training tool. In such studies, the specific effectiveness of mental imaging is often difficult to isolate because it was used along with other mental skills, such as relaxation. It is difficult to verify whether the research participants actually used valid imaging techniques, and very few studies have been conducted in real competitive situations. Also, not all research information on mental imaging in tennis is consistent. For example, Ricardo Weigert Coelho and colleagues at the Research Center for Exercise and Sport Science at the Federal University of Paraná in Brazil demonstrated that a combination of observation and mental imagery improved serve accuracy in national-level 16- to 18-year-old tennis players but that this intervention had no effect on skill in the serve return.4 The authors felt that this finding was consistent with the idea that the athlete can precisely visualize the serve in his mind because it is a predictable motion that the server controls. The serve return, on the other hand, is unpredictable and thus cannot be so easily imagined visually. However, Nicolas Robin and colleagues in the Laboratoire Performance, Motricite et Cognition in Poitiers, France, showed that 15 sessions of imagery training improved the accuracy of serve returns in experienced French players.14 This study also examined the extent to which a player has the ability to create mental images. They found that good imagers (as determined by a questionnaire) had better results than poor imagers, although the latter still showed more improvement than nonimaging participants. The general consensus is that these investigations support the idea that repeated mental imaging of a motor task or complex sport skill can improve performance of that task or skill, at least to some extent. However, these studies suggest that mental imaging is not as effective as physical training, so one still has to put in the hours of organized practice. But, for many people, mental imaging appears to help. The following tips and guidelines might help optimize your ability to gain skill via mental visualization training. Create an image of tennis play as viewed from the stands or put yourself right into the action on the court. While you yourself might be the player you are portraying in this brain video, it is probably best to use your favorite professional tennis player, who is likely a superior model. Don’t just close your eyes and watch your mind’s imagery - get right in there and make it real. Sense the kinesthetic motion of your muscles as they move. Feel the heat and sweat. Hear the crowd roar and the racket striking the ball. Perform mental imaging in a peaceful environment for at least 15 minutes 2 or 3 times a week. Studies indicate that mental imagining can be effective in youths as well as the elderly. Watch it as the action occurs. Researchers initially believed that imagining in slow motion was better because it allowed more time to focus on different parts of the physical act. Now, however, most sport psychologists feel that you should imagine in real time because you want your brain to learn the motion as you’re going to use it - at full speed. Try it with some soothing Debussy or Tchaikovsky. At least one study suggests that background music may make mental imaging more successful.

Read more from Tennisology by Thomas Rowland.

Coaching tips to accelerate sport skill learning - Knoxville Sports Performance | Examiner.com

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Good stuff. Coaching good athletes to become better is hard. This will help simplify


from Knoxville Sports Performance:
Coaching tips to accelerate sport skill learning - Knoxville Sports Performance | Examiner.com:

Athletes can learn and retain sport skills more quickly when coaches use effective instructional techniques.

These psychologically-based coaching tips can help athletes accelerate sport skill learning and performance:

1.  Help athletes learn skills correctly the first time.Initial learning is most impressionable. Coaches should monitor and guide athletes to learn proper technique when they are in the early stages of learning.

2.  Teach skill rhythms first, then refine the movements.  Athletes can learn and recall rhythmic movements more quickly than isolated movements, just as rhymes are more readily remembered than disconnected words in verbal learning.

3.  Chunk movements.  Movements can be learned more quickly if they are "chunked", or grouped, into larger movements.  Break skills down only as much as necessary.  Overanalysis causes paralysis.

 4.  Make new skills meaningful.  Explain and demonstrate a new skill so that the athlete understands what is required and why it is executed that way.  Clarify how a skill, movement, or strategy will help the athlete improve sport performance.

5.  Associate new skills and concepts with well learned skills.  Capitalize on an athlete's previous experience and maturity level by suggesting mental images that associate new skill concepts and features with familiar ones.

6.  Point out specific cues that require the athlete's attention.  Intention to remember alerts an athlete to important aspects of a skill or game situation.  The ability to focus and remember key cues distinguishes beginners from skilled performers. 

7.  Overlearn skills to correct errors.  Practice skills beyond what is necessary to perform them properly in order to correct technique flaws and reinforce skilled movements.

Sport skill memory techniques such as these are only a few of the many coaching tools that can streamline sports training time while boosting sport performance. 

References:

Magill, R.A. (2001). Motor learning: Concepts and applications (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schmidt, R.A. & Wrisberg, C.A. (2000). Motor learning and performance: A problem-based
learning approach (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wrisberg, C.A. (2007). Sport skill instruction for coaches. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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